Computer Programming

Overview
History
Modern Programming
Algorithmic Complexity
Methodologies
Measuring Language Usage
Debugging
Programming Languages
Programmer

Computer Programming

Overview

Within software engineering, programming (the implementation) is regarded as one phase in a software development process.

There is an ongoing debate on the extent to which the writing of programs is an art form, a craft, or an engineering discipline.
In general, good programming is considered to be the measured application of all three, with the goal of producing an efficient and evolvable software solution (the criteria for "efficient" and "evolvable" vary considerably).
The discipline differs from many other technical professions in that programmers, in general, do not need to be licensed or pass any standardized (or governmentally regulated) certification tests in order to call themselves "programmers" or even "software engineers" - but note that use of the term "engineer" is tighty regulated in many parts of the world.
Because the discipline covers many areas, which may or may not include critical applications, it is debatable whether licensing is required for the profession as a whole.
In most cases, the discipline is self-governed by the entities which require the programming, and sometimes very strict environments are defined (e.g. United States Air Force use of AdaCore and security clearance). Another ongoing debate is the extent to which the programming language used in writing computer programs affects the form that the final program takes.
This debate is analogous to that surrounding the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis[4] in linguistics and cognitive science, which postulates that a particular spoken language's nature influences the habitual thought of its speakers.
Different language patterns yield different patterns of thought.
This idea challenges the possibility of representing the world perfectly with language because it acknowledges that the mechanisms of any language condition the thoughts of its speaker community.

History

History of programming languages
Ada Lovelace, whose notes added to the end of Luigi Menabrea's paper included the first algorithm designed for processing by an Analytical Engine. She is often recognized as history's first computer programmer.
Lady Ada Lovelace

Programmable devices have existed at least as far back as 1206 AD, when the automata of Al-Jazari were programmable, via pegs and cams, to play various rhythms and drum patterns;[5] and the 1801 Jacquard loom could produce entirely different weaves using different used by changing the "program" - a series of pasteboard cards with holes punched in them.

However, the first computer program is generally dated to 1843, when mathematician Ada Lovelace published an algorithm to calculate a sequence of Bernoulli numbers, intended to be carried out by Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine.

Data and instructions were once stored on external punched cards, which were kept in order and arranged in program decks. In the 1880s Herman Hollerith invented the concept of storing data in machine-readable form.
Later a control panel (plugboard) added to his 1906 Type I Tabulator allowed it to be programmed for different jobs, and by the late 1940s, unit record equipment such as the IBM 602 and IBM 604, were programmed by control panels in a similar way; as were the first electronic computers.
However, with the concept of the stored-program computers introduced in 1949, both programs and data were stored and manipulated in the same way in computer memory.

Machine code was the language of early programs, written in the instruction set of the particular machine, often in binary notation.
Assembly languages were soon developed that let the programmer specify instruction in a text format, (e.g., ADD X, TOTAL), with abbreviations for each operation code and meaningful names for specifying addresses.
However, because an assembly language is little more than a different notation for a machine language, any two machines with different instruction sets also have different assembly languages.

Wired control panel for an IBM 402 Accounting Machine.
High-level languages allow the programmer to write programs in terms that are more abstract, and less bound to the underlying hardware.
They harness the power of computers to make programming easier[8] by allowing programmers to specify calculations by entering a formula directly (e.g., Y = X*2 + 5*X + 9).
FORTRAN, the first widely used high-level language to have a functional implementation, came out in 1957[9] and many other languages were soon developed - in particular, COBOL aimed at commercial data processing, and Lisp for computer research.

Programs were mostly still entered using punched cards or paper tape. See computer programming in the punch card era. By the late 1960s, data storage devices and computer terminals became inexpensive enough that programs could be created by typing directly into the computers.
Text editors were developed that allowed changes and corrections to be made much more easily than with punched cards.

Modern programming

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Quality requirements

Whatever the approach to development may be, the final program must satisfy some fundamental properties. The following properties are among the most important:

Reliability: how often the results of a program are correct. This depends on conceptual correctness of algorithms, and minimization of programming mistakes, such as mistakes in resource management (e.g., buffer overflows and race conditions) and logic errors (such as division by zero or off-by-one errors).

Robustness: how well a program anticipates problems due to errors (not bugs). This includes situations such as incorrect, inappropriate or corrupt data, unavailability of needed resources such as memory, operating system services and network connections, user error, and unexpected power outages.

Usability: the ergonomics of a program: the ease with which a person can use the program for its intended purpose or in some cases even unanticipated purposes. Such issues can make or break its success even regardless of other issues.
This involves a wide range of textual, graphical and sometimes hardware elements that improve the clarity, intuitiveness, cohesiveness and completeness of a program's user interface.

Portability: the range of computer hardware and operating system platforms on which the source code of a program can be compiled/interpreted and run.
This depends on differences in the programming facilities provided by the different platforms, including hardware and operating system resources, expected behavior of the hardware and operating system, and availability of platform specific compilers (and sometimes libraries) for the language of the source code.

Maintainability: the ease with which a program can be modified by its present or future developers in order to make improvements or customizations, fix bugs and security holes, or adapt it to new environments.
Good practices[10] during initial development make the difference in this regard. This quality may not be directly apparent to the end user but it can significantly affect the fate of a program over the long term.

Efficiency/performance: Measure of system resources a program consumes (processor time, memory space, slow devices such as disks, network bandwidth and to some extent even user interaction): the less, the better. This also includes careful management of resources, for example cleaning up temporary files and eliminating memory leaks.

Readability of source code

In computer programming, readability refers to the ease with which a human reader can comprehend the purpose, control flow, and operation of source code. It affects the aspects of quality above, including portability, usability and most importantly maintainability. Readability is important because programmers spend the majority of their time reading, trying to understand and modifying existing source code, rather than writing new source code. Unreadable code often leads to bugs, inefficiencies, and duplicated code. A study[11] found that a few simple readability transformations made code shorter and drastically reduced the time to understand it.

Following a consistent programming style often helps readability. However, readability is more than just programming style. Many factors, having little or nothing to do with the ability of the computer to efficiently compile and execute the code, contribute to readability.[12] Some of these factors include:

Different indent styles (whitespace)
Comments
Decomposition
Naming conventions for objects (such as variables, classes, procedures, etc.)

The presentation aspects of this (such as indents, line breaks, color highlighting, and so on) are often handled by the source code editor, but the content aspects reflect the programmer's talent and skills.

Various visual programming languages have also been developed with the intent to resolve readability concerns by adopting non-traditional approaches to code structure and display.
Integrated development environments (IDEs) aim to integrate all such help. Techniques like Code refactoring can enhance readability.

Algorithmic complexity

The academic field and the engineering practice of computer programming are both largely concerned with discovering and implementing the most efficient algorithms for a given class of problem.
For this purpose, algorithms are classified into orders using so-called Big O notation, which expresses resource use, such as execution time or memory consumption, in terms of the size of an input.
Expert programmers are familiar with a variety of well-established algorithms and their respective complexities and use this knowledge to choose algorithms that are best suited to the circumstances.

Methodologies

The first step in most formal software development processes is requirements analysis, followed by testing to determine value modeling, implementation, and failure elimination (debugging). There exist a lot of differing approaches for each of those tasks. One approach popular for requirements analysis is Use Case analysis.
Many programmers use forms of Agile software development where the various stages of formal software development are more integrated together into short cycles that take a few weeks rather than years.
There are many approaches to the Software development process.

Popular modeling techniques include Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) and Model-Driven Architecture (MDA). The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a notation used for both the OOAD and MDA.

A similar technique used for database design is Entity-Relationship Modeling (ER Modeling).

Implementation techniques include imperative languages (object-oriented or procedural), functional languages, and logic languages.

Measuring language usage

Main article: Measuring programming language popularity

It is very difficult to determine what are the most popular of modern programming languages. Methods of measuring programming language popularity include: counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language,[13] the number of books sold and courses teaching the language (this overestimates the importance of newer languages), and estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language (this underestimates the number of users of business languages such as COBOL).

Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications, while some languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications. For example, COBOL is still strong in corporate data centers[14] often on large mainframe computers, Fortran in engineering applications, scripting languages in Web development, and C in embedded software.
Many applications use a mix of several languages in their construction and use. New languages are generally designed around the syntax of a prior language with new functionality added, (for example C++ adds object-orientation to C, and Java adds memory management and bytecode to C++, but as a result, loses efficiency and the ability for low-level manipulation).

Debugging

The bug from 1947 which is at the origin of a popular (but incorrect) etymology for the common term for a software defect.

Main article: Debugging
Debugging is a very important task in the software development process since having defects in a program can have significant consequences for its users. Some languages are more prone to some kinds of faults because their specification does not require compilers to perform as much checking as other languages.
Use of a static code analysis tool can help detect some possible problems.

Debugging is often done with IDEs like Eclipse, Visual Studio, Kdevelop, NetBeans and Code::Blocks. Standalone debuggers like GDB are also used, and these often provide less of a visual environment, usually using a command line. Some text editors such as Emacs allow GDB to be invoked through them, to provide a visual environment.

Programming languages

Main articles: Programming language and List of programming languages

Different programming languages support different styles of programming (called programming paradigms). The choice of language used is subject to many considerations, such as company policy, suitability to task, availability of third-party packages, or individual preference.
Ideally, the programming language best suited for the task at hand will be selected. Trade-offs from this ideal involve finding enough programmers who know the language to build a team, the availability of compilers for that language, and the efficiency with which programs written in a given language execute.
Languages form an approximate spectrum from "low-level" to "high-level"; "low-level" languages are typically more machine-oriented and faster to execute, whereas "high-level" languages are more abstract and easier to use but execute less quickly.
It is usually easier to code in "high-level" languages than in "low-level" ones.

Below is a table containing High-level and Low-level programming languages:

Programming Languages
High-level languages	Low-level Languages
JAVA	BeeLanguage
PYTHON	Assembly Language
PHP	Machine Language
C++	C--

Allen Downey, in his book How To Think Like A Computer Scientist, writes:
The details look different in different languages, but a few basic instructions appear in just about every language:
Input: Gather data from the keyboard, a file, or some other device.
Output: Display data on the screen or send data to a file or other device.
Arithmetic: Perform basic arithmetical operations like addition and multiplication.
Conditional Execution: Check for certain conditions and execute the appropriate sequence of statements.
Repetition: Perform some action repeatedly, usually with some variation.

Many computer languages provide a mechanism to call functions provided by shared libraries. Provided the functions in a library follow the appropriate run-time conventions (e.g., method of passing arguments), then these functions may be written in any other language.

Programmers

Main article: Programmer
See also: Software developer and Software engineer

Computer programmers are those who write computer software. Their jobs usually involve:
Coding
Debugging
Documentation
Integration
Maintenance
Requirements analysis
Software architecture
Software testing

Reference

For more information please click or click:here to know about web development

Overview
History
Modern Programming
Algorithmic Complexity
Methodologies
Measuring Language Usage
Debugging
Programming Languages
Programmer

For extra non-related reading. Check out:Click Here!!

No knowledge is a waste they say!!

Advert For Admission Into Postgraduate Programmes For 2017/2018 Session

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

School of Postgraduate Studies

ADVERT FOR ADMISSION INTO POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMMES FOR 2017/2018 SESSION.

The University of Nigeria, Nsukka offers programmes leading to the award of Postgraduate Diplomas, Master’s and Doctorate degrees in various Faculties and in the areas specified under each Department/Institute/Centre for the incoming session 2017/2018.

GENERAL ENTRY QUALIFICATIONS FOR POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMMES

i) Candidates for admission into any postgraduate programme of the University must have    obtained 5 credits at not more than two sittings in WASC or GCE or NECO or NABTEB including English Language. Candidates shall also possess the minimum entry requirements for admission into the first degree and postgraduate programmes in their areas of interest for postgraduate studies.
ii) Graduates of the University of Nigeria or other recognized Universities who possess the above qualifications are eligible to apply.
iii) For the PGD in Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Architecture, only candidates with University degrees in relevant areas need apply.
A.    POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA PROGRAMMES i) Holders of Credit (Upper credit) level passes at HND or its equivalent in relevant areas (for programmes in the Faculties of Agriculture and Business Administration; the Departments of Political Science, Public Administration & Local Government; and Vocational Teacher Education; and for Postgraduate Diploma in Electoral Administration Programme). Qualifications such as AIB, ACCA, ACMA, ICAN, BEEC, CPA, etc may also be considered for admission.
12
ii) Candidates with professional qualifications including HND must have obtained 5 credits in WASC or GCE O/L including English and Mathematics for admission into degree courses in Business Administration.   iii) For Postgraduate Diploma in Geoinformatics & Surveying in particular, candidates with third class honours degrees in Geography, Geology and other Physical Sciences, HND Upper Credit level passes in related fields, are also eligible.
iv) Candidates who hold qualifications other than the above which are acceptable to the Board of the School of Postgraduate Studies and Senate of the University, may also be considered for admission.

METHOD OF APPLICATION

Application Forms can be obtained ONLINE on payment of a non-refundable fee of N25,000.00 (Twenty five thousand naira only) made payable to “The University of Nigeria Postgraduate Application Fees Account, at any bank within the country using the Remita platform.
Applicants should log on to www.unn.edu.ng and follow the procedures stated below:

❖ Click on UNN Portal or through this link unnportal.unn.edu.ng.

❖ Click on PG Application form to generate invoice for payment.

❖ Use your phone number to generate the invoice. You are advised to use a functional number to enable us reach you for the admission screening test.

❖ Proceed to any Bank with Remita platform for payment.

❖ Return to the UNN Portal with your payment confirmation pin from the Bank and follow the procedure for completing the form.

For more information: Click to Download

S/N	LECTURER	DEPARTMENTS ALLOTED	TIME ALLOTTED
		Thursday, 1st June, 2017
1	Prof. Ezema, F.I.	Adult Education	8:00 am – 8:10 am
2	Prof. Asogwa, P.U.	Fine and Applied Arts and Archaeology & Tourism	9:00 am – 9:10 am
3	Mr. Asogwa, M.O.	VTE (Business Educ.) Foreign Languages & Literature	10:00 am -10:10 am
4	Dr. Nwamarah, J.U.	Sociology & Anthropology	11:00 am – 11:10 am
5	Dr. Onwubiko, G.N.	Social Work and Linguistics	12:00 noon – 12:10 pm
6	Mrs. Awachie, M.N.	Political Science	1:00 pm – 1:10 pm
7	Dr. Otitoju, G.T.O.	Combined Arts and HPE	2:00 pm – 2:10 pm
8	Dr. Ezekoye, V.A.	Arts Education, Theatre & Film Studies and Geography	3:00 pm – 3:10 pm
9	Dr. Atugwu, A.I.	Psychology and Library and Information Studies	4:00 pm – 4:10 pm
10	Dr. Agwu, E. J.	Economics and Music	5: 00 pm – 5: 10 pm
		Friday, 2nd June, 2017
11	Dr. Ibeanu, F.N.	PALG	8:00 am – 8:10 am
12	Mrs. Isuosuo, C.C.	Social Science Education Mass Communication Educational Foundations	9:00 am – 9:10 am
13	Mr. Ugwu, K.O.	Law	10:00 am -10:10 am
14	Mrs. Nzei, J.I.	Management Urban & Regional Planning	11:00 am – 11:10 am
15	Dr. Asuzu, C.U.	History & Int’l Studies English & Literary Studies	12:00 noon – 12:10 pm
16	Mrs. Nwanya, A.C.	Combined Social Sciences	1:00 pm – 1:10 pm
17	Mrs. Nweze, B.C.	Accountancy	2:00 pm – 2:10 pm
18	Mrs. Okoroigwe, F.C.	Banking & Finance Estate Management	3:00 pm – 3:10 pm
19	Mr. Ugwoke, R.O.	Marketing	4:00 pm – 4:10 pm
20	Dr. Ugwu, E.B.I.	Philosophy Religion and Cultural Studies	5: 00 pm – 5: 10 pm

UNN: News and Information

Friday, 23 March 2018

E Market Workshop (UNN)

Wednesday, 29 November 2017

Payment Of 47th Convocation Levy And Collection Of Academic Gowns

Sunday, 4 June 2017

JUPEB ADVERT 2017 EDITION

Computer Programming

Overview

History

Modern programming

Quality requirements

Readability of source code

Algorithmic complexity

Methodologies

Measuring language usage

Debugging

Programming languages

Programming Languages

High-level languages

Low-level Languages

Programmers

Reference

Tuesday, 30 May 2017

TIME TABLE FOR GSP 105 MOP-UP QUIZ (FIRST SEMESTER, 2016/2017)

Sunday, 28 May 2017

Advert For Admission Into Postgraduate Programmes For 2017/2018 Session

SECOND SEMESTER COURSE REGISTRATION

Translate

Editors Preference